History

Japan-Past

People who live in Japan are ancient descendants of those who lived on the continent of Asia - human history did not begin on the Island of Japan - most likely people arrived into Japan through Korea, Siberia and/or Taiwan/China.

However, traditional Japanese legend maintains that Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor Jimmu. During the 5th and 6th centuries, the Chinese writing system and Buddhism were introduced with other Chinese cultures by way of the Korean peninsula. The emperors were the nominal rulers, but actual power was usually held by powerful court nobles, regents, or shoguns (military governors).

During the 16th century, traders from Portugal, the Netherlands, England, and Spain arrived, as did Christian missionaries. During the early part of the 17th century, Japan's Shogunate suspected that they were actually forerunners of a military conquest by European powers and ultimately barred all relations with the outside world except for severely restricted contacts with Dutch and Chinese merchants at Nagasaki (Dejima). This isolation lasted for 251 years, until Commodore Matthew Perry forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.

Within several years, renewed contact with the West profoundly altered Japanese society. The Shogunate was forced to resign, and the emperor was restored to power. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 initiated many reforms. The feudal system was abolished, and numerous Western institutions were adopted, including a Western legal system and government, along with other economic, social and military reforms that transformed Japan into a world power. Japan's new ambitions led to invasion wars that exploited and killed thousands of people in mainland China (1895) and Russia (1905) and led to the annexation by Japan of Korea, Taiwan and other territories.

The early 20th century saw Japan come under increasing influence of an expansionist military, leading to the invasion of Manchuria, a second Sino-Japanese War (1937), and an attack on the US naval base in Pearl Harbor (1941) that brought the United States into World War II. After a long and brutal Pacific campaign, Japan lost Okinawa and was pushed back to the four main islands. Reluctant to launch a full-scale invasion of Japan, the United States obliterated Hiroshima and Nagasaki with two atomic bombs. They killed approximately 130,000 people instantly and with Hirohito's unconditional surrender to the United States on August 15, 1945, sovereignty and independence was restored in Southeastern and Eastern Asia.

A divested post-war Japan remained under US occupation until 1952, thereafter it embarked on a remarkable economic recovery that returned prosperity to the islands. Okinawa remained under US occupation until 1972 to stabilize East Asia, and a major military presence remains there to this day.

Samurai

Samurai, were members of the hereditary warrior class in Japan. The early samurai defended the aristocrats' estates in the provinces. The samurai wore a protective helmet and armor. They used two curved swords, one long and one short. During the 1000's and 1100's, the samurai began to develop a tradition of values and personal conduct. They valued horsemanship, skill with the bow, strong self-discipline, and bravery. Above all, they prized total obedience and loyalty to their lords, and personal honor. If the samurai were dishonored, they would consider it a duty to commit ritual suicide. The samurai became powerful after Yoritomo, the Minamoto clan leader, established the first shogunate (warrior government) in the late 1100's. Their military strength and administrative organization provided a foundation for a long period of relative peace. In the 1300's to 1500's, under the weak Ashikaga shogunate, the samurai became leaders of Japanese society but battled among themselves. The greatest of the warriors, called daimyo, controlled vast territories. After a period of control by local warlords, Japan was reunited in the late 1500's. In 1603, the powerful Tokugawa shogunate was established. The samurai then influenced every part of life until the mid-1800's, when the Japanese emperor regained full control.

While aristocratic life flourished in Kyoto, new forces were emerging in more distant regions of Japan. To maintain law and order and to protect their rice fields, a new class of mounted warriors arose. They were called samurai, which means "those who serve." The samurai fought with bows and arrows and with swords. They were very much like the European knights of the Middle Ages. At first these warriors held only local power in the countryside, where they co-operated with governors sent out from the imperial court. But eventually the samurai became more powerful, and from the 12th to the 19th century, they were the rulers of Japan.

Kamakura Rulers: The First Shoguns.

The first military government was established in Kamakura in eastern Honshu in 1185. Its founder took the title of "Barbarian-Conquering-General"--whose shortened form in Japanese is shogun. He claimed to be merely the military ruler, while the emperor ruled over the civil government in Kyoto. But, in fact, he gradually gathered all power into his own hands and those of his samurai followers, leaving the emperor more powerless than ever.

The "Divine Wind."

During the 13th century, the Mongol emperor of China, Kublai Khan, sent emissaries to Japan with the demand that it submit to his rule. The shogun in Kamakura ignored the demand and beheaded the emissaries. Kublai Khan was so angered that he sent thousands of ships to invade Japan. The first attack was inconclusive, but during the second, a great storm appeared that destroyed many of the enemy ships. The rest of the ships were forced to retreat. The Japanese called this storm kamikaze, or "divine wind," in the belief that it had saved them from foreign invasion.

Kyoto Shogunate: The Ashikaga

The second period of military rule began in the early 14th century. The samurai had become so numerous and so overly ambitious that the rulers in Kamakura could no longer control them. After rebellions broke out, a new military government took power, headed by the Ashikaga clan. The new shogun settled in Kyoto, where he built himself a magnificent palace. Although the emperor still resided in Kyoto, a separate civil government no longer existed, except on paper.

The Ashikaga shoguns built great temples and gardens, which still can be seen today. Several, like the Silver Pavilion, are national treasures. It was the great age of Zen Buddhism. The Ashikaga were patrons of monasteries and of painters, poets, and writers.

The Dark Age

As Ashikaga rule began to decline in the middle of the 15th century, Japan was plunged into a dark age of constant warfare, which was to last for nearly a century. Feudal lords, called daimyo, each with his fortified castle and army of samurai, arose in every part of Japan. Hundreds of such daimyo competed for power, drafting foot soldiers from among the peasants to enlarge their armies.

The First Europeans

Just at this time the first Europeans arrived in Japan. In 1543 three Portuguese traders who had been sailing along the China coast were blown out to sea and eventually landed on an island south of Kyushu. They were treated hospitably. Their firearms, in particular, aroused much excitement among the samurai, who quickly copied them and used them to advantage in their wars. News of the coming of the foreigners and of their unusual possessions spread throughout the country. The Portuguese themselves, on hearing of the discovery of Japan, at once fitted out expeditions to trade in this new market. Within a few years the traders were followed by missionaries. Other foreign expeditions also made their way to the Japanese islands. During the short but successful mission of the Spanish Jesuit Saint Francis Xavier, the first Christian church was built in Japan, and hundreds of Japanese were converted to the Roman Catholic religion.

Three Leaders of the 16th Century

Three men--Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu--were destined to play important roles in the history of 16th-century Japan. A well-known story compares the characters of the three.

Nobunaga says: "Nightingale, if you do not sing, I shall kill you."

Hideyoshi says: "Nightingale, if you do not sing, I shall make you."

Ieyasu says: "Nightingale, if you do not sing now, I shall wait until you do."

Oda Nobunaga was the first to gain power. After ousting the weakened Ashikaga shogun from Kyoto, he eliminated all of his rivals, successfully using the new firearms in a decisive battle. But the ruthless Nobunaga was not popular. In 1582, after a brief rule of nine years, he was killed by one of his own men. He was succeeded by Hideyoshi.

Many stories are told about Hideyoshi. Beginning as a common soldier, who could neither read nor write, he became Japan's greatest warrior. He was an ugly man--his nickname as a child had been Kozaru, or "Little Monkey." After several years at a monastery, to which his despairing parents had sent him, he entered the service of a daimyo. He then joined Nobunaga's army, where he quickly rose to become his chief general.

By 1590, Hideyoshi had brought all of Japan under his control. But the arrogant and boastful warrior had an even greater ambition: He dreamed of conquering China. The armies he sent to the mainland, however, suffered severe losses in Korea, and they were withdrawn soon after Hideyoshi's death in 1598. Tokugawa Ieyasu was a clever politician as well as a brilliant general. He was known for his patience and his sense of justice. After defeating all of his opponents in battle in 1600, he established a military government that lasted until the middle of the 19th century. Under the Tokugawa shoguns, Japan enjoyed two and a half centuries of peace.

The Tokugawa Shogunate

Following the example of the first Kamakura shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu established his shogunate, or military government, in eastern Japan, at Edo (the future Tokyo). Originally a small village, within a century it was to grow into a city of a million inhabitants.

Ieyasu took direct control of one third of Japan, settling his own soldiers in Edo. The rest of the land he distributed to other lords, especially favoring those who had proved their loyalty to him in battle. Those he trusted most were settled, along with their thousands of samurai, on lands bordering his own. Those he least trusted were sent to distant regions in Kyushu or Shikoku. Ieyasu also formed a council of the most trustworthy lords as his advisers. When later shoguns were too young or too weak to rule effectively, the council took over and governed Japan.

Some Important Events Under the Tokugawa.In the 1630's, under the third shogun, Christianity was banned in Japan. Fearing that the Japanese lords who had converted to Christianity would not remain loyal to his government, the shogun ordered all foreigners to leave Japan and all Christian converts to give up their new religion. Anyone who refused to obey the order was sentenced to death. Many Japanese did renounce Christianity, but others died for their faith. Beginning in the mid-17th century, not only were foreigners forbidden to enter Japan, the Japanese themselves were forbidden to travel outside the country. Any who did so were liable to execution on returning. The reason for this harsh law, like the one banning Christianity, was to ensure the security of Japan. The one exception to the order against foreigners was in the port city of Nagasaki on Kyushu, far from the capital at Edo, where a handful of Dutch, Chinese, and Korean merchants were permitted to trade. For two centuries, Nagasaki remained Japan's only outlet to the rest of the world, through which a few books on Western science entered. Commerce grew within Japan as peace and a more stable society brought economic expansion. Art, literature, and drama reached new heights of expression. The Kabuki play--more realistic than the earlier N drama--became popular among the emerging middle classes in the cities. While some literature was serious and dealt with heroes and military virtue, most city people preferred romances and comic sketches of ordinary folk. The function of the samurai changed. After many years of peace, they became a class of hereditary government officials rather than warriors. Although they still wore swords and trained in the military arts, education and learning had now become more important.

Japan-Present

Young Japanese are growing up in a Japan far different from the one their parents and grandparents knew. Because schools are co-educational, young men and women now have a more relaxed attitude toward each other. Parents and children talk to each other more frankly, and there is more respect for individual rights. A higher standard of living and a more varied diet have increased the average Japanese life span to 81 years, one of the highest in the world.

Throughout their history the Japanese have shown a remarkable ability to absorb new ideas and influences and adapt them to their own needs. This ability accounts in part for the great strides the Japanese have made in science, industry, and technology. At the same time, Japan remains a nation with distinctive cultural traditions. Although Japan's recent economic problems are challenging its traditional ways of doing business, the country remains a powerhouse in the world economy.

More On World War II

World War II began in Europe in September 1939. In September 1940, Japanese troops occupied the northern part of French Indochina. When they moved into the southern part of Indochina the next year, the United States cut off its exports to Japan. In the fall of 1941, General Hideki Tojo became prime minister of Japan. Japan's military leaders began preparing to wage war against the United States. Attack on Pearl Harbor Japanese bombers attacked the U.S. military bases at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on Dec. 7, 1941. They also bombed U.S. bases on Guam and Wake Island and in the Philippines. The bombing brought the United States into war against Japan and Japan's European allies, Germany and Italy. Japanese empire in 1942 Japan quickly won dramatic victories in Southeast Asia and in the South Pacific. By 1942, the Japanese empire spanned much of the area from the eastern edge of India through Indonesia, and from the Aleutian Islands near Alaska to the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific Ocean. The Japanese fleet suffered its first major setback in May 1942, when the United States fought the Battle of the Coral Sea to a draw. The U.S. victory in the Battle of Midway the following month helped turn the tide in favor of the United States. As Japanese defeats increased, political discontent in Japan grew. On July 18, 1944, Prime Minister Tojo's Cabinet fell. Eyewitness account of the bombing of Nagasaki Early in 1945, the battle for the Japanese homeland began. American bombers hit industrial targets, and warships pounded Japanese coastal cities. American submarines cut off the shipping of vital supplies to Japan. On August 6, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb ever used in warfare on the city of Hiroshima. Two days later, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria and Korea. The next day, U.S. fliers dropped a second and larger atomic bomb on Nagasaki. Japan agreed to surrender on August 14. The next day, Emperor Hirohito announced to the Japanese people that Japan had agreed to end the war. On Sept. 2, 1945, Japanese officials officially surrendered aboard the battleship U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Japan lost all its territory on the mainland of Asia. It also lost all the islands it had governed in the Pacific. The nation kept only its four main islands and the small islands nearby. In the 1950's, 1960's, and 1970's the United States returned to Japan the Bonin Islands, Iwo Jima, and the Ryukyu Islands. Russia still occupies the Kuril Islands.

Japan lacked many of the natural resources needed to feed its industries. Instead of expanding trade, the Japanese expanded their empire.

The Japanese seized Manchuria in 1931, and began a war against China in 1937.

President Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull shut offAmerican trade in an effort to force the Japanese to end their hostilities against China. This made the Japanese even more aggressive. They had long coveted the resource-rich British and Dutch colonies of Southeast Asia, and as the U.S. trade embargo tightened, the Japanese increasingly looked southward for raw materials and strategic resources.

Only the United States stood in Japan's path. The U.S. Pacific Fleet atPearl Harbor was the only force capable of challenging Japan's navy, and American bases in the Philippines could threaten lines of communications between the Japanese home islands and the East Indies. Every oil tanker heading for Japan would have to pass by American-held Luzon. From these needs and constraints, Japan's war plans emerged.

First, its navy would neutralize the American fleet with a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Japan would also seize America's central Pacific bases at Guam and Wake islands and invade the Philippines. With American naval power crippled, Japan's military would be free to seize Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies in a series of rapid amphibious operations. Japan would then establish a defensive ring around its newly conquered empire by fortifying islands in the south and the central Pacific.

Japan's leaders were convinced that Americans, once involved in theEuropean war, would be willing to negotiate peace in the Pacific.

On December 7, 1941, Japan paralyzed the Pacific Fleet in its attack on Pearl Harbor. In the Philippines, Japanese fliers destroyed most of MacArthur's air force on the ground. Freed of effective opposition, Japanese forces took Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies in rapid succession. By March 1942 the Japanese had conquered an empire.